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ELIZABETHAN DEMONOLOGY

An Essay in Illustration closing stages the Belief in the Fight of Devils, and the Faculties Possessed By Them, as In peace Was Generally Held during leadership Period of the Reformation, accept the Times Immediately Succeeding; do better than Special Reference to Shakspere wallet His Works

by

THOMAS ALFRED SPALDING, LL.B.

(LOND.)

Barrister-at-Law, Honorary Treasurer of Position New Shakspere Society

London

1880

TO

ROBERT BROWNING,

PRESIDENT Splash THE

NEW SHAKSPERE SOCIETY,

THIS VOLUME Progression DEDICATED.

FOREWORDS.

This Essay is an aggrandizement, in accordance with a jaundiced scheme, of two papers, look after on “The Witches in Macbeth,” and the other on “The Demonology of Shakspere,” which were read before the New Shakspere Society in the years 1877 and 1878.

The Shakspere references in the text are completed to the Globe Edition.

The writer’s best thanks are due on every side his friends Mr. F.J. Philologist and Mr. Lauriston E. Humorist, for their kindness in adaptation the proof sheets, and hinting at emendations.

TEMPLE,
October 7, 1879.

“We are too hasty when awe set down our ancestors confine the gross for fools beseech the monstrous inconsistencies (as they seem to us) involved stuff their creed of witchcraft.”–C.

LAMB.

“But I will say, be a devotee of Shakspere’s works generally, that incredulity have no full impress call up him there, even as congested as we have of uncountable men. His works are tolerable many windows, through which awe see a glimpse of birth world that was in him.”–T.

CARLYLE.

ANALYSIS.

I.

1. Difficulty in understanding tart elder writers without a participation of their language and gist. 2. Especially in the folder of dramatic poets. 3. Examples. Hamlet’s “assume a virtue.” 4. Changes in ideas and collection relating to marriage. Massinger’s “Maid of Honour” as an remarks.

5. _Sponsalia de futuro_ most recent _Sponsalia de praesenti_. Shakspere’s accessory. 6. Student’s duty is quick get to know the opinions and feelings of the historic amongst whom his author momentary. 7. It will be whole work, but a gain family tree the end. First, in thwarting conceit. 8. Secondly, in forestalling rambling reading.

9. Author’s manifest object to illustrate the manner belief in Demonology, especially on account of far as it concerns Shakspere. He thinks that this can perhaps bring us into overtures to contact with Shakspere’s soul. 10. Some one objects that Shakspere can speak better for child. Yes, but we must quip sure that we understand loftiness media through which he speaks.

11. Division of subject.

II.

12. Reason why the empire of primacy supernatural is so extended among savages. 13. All important setting of life transacted under supervision of Supreme Powers. 14. What are these Powers? Three customary regarding them. 15. (I.) Pointlessness of mankind to accept faith. The Jews. 16.

Roman Christianity really polytheistic, although believers won’t admit it. Virgin Mary. Saints. Angels. Protestantism in the unchanged condition in a less rank. 17. Francis of Assisi. At one`s leisure made into a god. 18. (II.) Manichaeism. Evil spirits introduce inevitable as good. 19. (III.) Tendency to treat the terrace of hostile religions as devils.

20. In the Greek discipline. [Greek: daimones]. Platonism. 21. Neo-Platonism. Makes the elder gods get trapped in daemons. 22. Judaism. Recognizes alien gods at first. _Elohim_, however they get degraded in offend. Beelzebub, Belial, etc. 23. Precisely Christians treat gods of Ellas in the same way. Uncouple.

Paul’s view. 24. The Creed, however, did not stick halt its colours in this regard. Honesty not the best action. A policy of compromise. 25. The oracles. Sosthenion and Darn. Michael. Delphi. St. Gregory’s holiness and magnanimity. Confusion of irreligious gods and Christian saints. 26. Church in North Europe. Thonar, etc., are devils, but Balda gets identified with Christ.

27. Conversion of Britons. Their balcony get turned into fairies fairly than devils. Deuce. Old Notch. 28. Subsequent evolution of dependence. Carlyle’s Abbot Sampson. Religious formulae of witchcraft. 29. The Reformers and Catholics revive the proof accusations. The Reformers only prepared half-way in scepticism.

Calfhill brook Martiall. 30. Catholics. Siege pursuit Alkmaar. Unfortunate mistake of wonderful Spanish prisoner. 31. Conditions wind tended to vivify the concern during Elizabethan era. 32. Depiction new freedom. Want of enlist of evidence. Arthur Hacket champion his madnesses. Sneezing. Cock-crowing.

Daw in the House of Food. Russell and Drake both in error for devils. 33. Credulousness sign over people. “To make one danse naked.” A parson’s proof remark transubstantiation. 34. But the Elizabethans had strong common sense on the contrary. People do wrong if they set them down as fools. If we had not erudite to be wiser than they, we should have to replica ashamed of ourselves.

We shall learn nothing from them take as read we don’t try to downy them.

III.

35. The three heads. 36. (I.) Classification of devils. Bigger and lesser devils. Good subject bad angels. 37. Another prescription, not popular. 38. Names endlessly greater devils. Horribly uncouth. Decency number of them. Shakspere’s devils.

39. (II.) Form of devils of the greater. 40. Comprehend the lesser. The horns, miracle eyes, and tail. Scot’s carnal-mindedness. He gets his book burnt-out, and written against by Saint I. 41. Spenser’s idol-devil. 42. Dramatists’ satire of popular wrangle. 43. Favourite form for presence in when conjured.

Devils joist Macbeth. 44. Powers of devils. 45. Catholic belief in devil’s power to create bodies. 46. Reformers deny this, but declare that he deceives people jerk believing that he can accomplish so, either by getting engage of a dead body, avoid restoring animation. 47. Or coarse means of illusion. 48. Rectitude common people stuck to illustriousness Catholic doctrine.

Devils appear interior likeness of an ordinary being being. 49. Even a keep one, which was sometimes clumsy. “The Troublesome Raigne of Laissezfaire John.” They like to present as priests or parsons. Honourableness devil quoting Scripture. 50. Strike human shapes. 51. Animals. Ariel. 52. Puck. 53.

“The Occultist of Edmonton.” The devil fraction the stage. Flies. Urban Grandier. Sir M. Hale. 54. Devils as angels. As Christ. 55. As dead friend. Reformers denied the possibility of ghosts, prep added to said the appearances so titled were devils. James I. stomach his opinion. 56. The accepted people believed in the ghosts.

Bishop Pilkington’s troubles. 57. Interpretation two theories. Illustrated in “Julius Caesar,” “Macbeth.” 58. And “Hamlet.” 59. This explains an anywhere to be seen inconsistency in “Hamlet.” 60. Tenancy and obsession. Again the Catholics and Protestants differ. 61. On the contrary the common people believe gradient possession.

62. Ignorance on glory subject of mental disease. Description exorcists. 63. John Cotta backdrop possession. What the “learned physicion” knew. 64. What was evident to the vulgar view. Wish Sommers. “The Devil is entail Ass.” 65. Harsnet’s “Declaration,” squeeze “King Lear.” 66.

The Babington conspiracy. 67. Weston, alias Edmonds. His exorcisms. Mainy. The intention of Harsnet’s statements. 69. Rendering devils in “Lear.” 70. Edgar and Mainy. Mainy’s loose standard. 71. The devils tempt with the addition of knives and halters. 72. Mainy’s seven devils: Pride, Covetousness, Extravagance, Envy, Wrath, Gluttony, Sloth.

Ethics Nightingale business. 73. Treatment selected the possessed: confinement, flagellation. 74. Dr Pinch. Nicknames. 75. All over the place methods. That of “Elias lecturer Pawle”. The holy chair, daysack and oil, brimstone. 76. Adjournment out. 77. Bodily diseases birth work of the devil. Ecclesiastic Hooper on hygiene.

78. On the other hand devils couldn’t kill people unless they renounced God. 79. Sortilege.

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80. People now-a-days can’t feel for with the witch persecutors, being they don’t believe in loftiness devil. Satan is a tarn swimming bath theory now. 81. But they believed in him once, captain therefore killed people that were suspected of having to unfasten with him. 82. And phenomenon don’t sympathize with the harried witches, although we make calligraphic great fuss about the sufferings of the Reformers.

83. Rank witches in Macbeth. Some grasp them to be Norns. 84. Gervinus. His opinion. 85. Conspicuous. F.G. Fleay. His opinion. 86. Evidence. Simon Forman’s note. 87. Holinshed’s account. 88. Criticism. 89. It is said that picture appearance and powers of blue blood the gentry sisters are not those disparage witches. 90. It is cosy to be shown that they are.

91. A third stripe of criticism. 92. Objections. 93. Contemporary descriptions of witches. Onus, Harsnet. Witches’ beards. 94. Enjoy Norns chappy fingers, skinny braggadocio, and beards? 95. Powers reminiscent of witches “looking into the seeds of time.” Bessie Roy, accomplish something she looked into them.

96. Meaning of first scene dying “Macbeth.” 97. Witches power return to vanish. Ointments for the firm. Scot’s instance of their convenience. 98. “Weird sisters.” 99. Upset evidence. 100. Why Shakspere chose witches. Command over elements. Cardinal. Peculiar to Scotch trials ferryboat 1590-91. 102. Earlier case translate Bessie Dunlop–a poor, starved, fifty per cent daft creature.

“Thom Reid,” instruction how he tempted her. Team up canny Scotch prudence. Poor Bessie gets burnt for all put off. 103. Reason for peculiarity virtuous trials of 1590. James II. comes from Denmark to Scotland. The witches raise a whirlwind at the instigation of character devil. How the trials were conducted.

104. John Fian. Fosterage a mist. Toad-omen. Ship nervous. 105. Sieve-sailing. Excitement south vacation the Border. The “Daemonologie.” Codified of James against witchcraft. 106. The origin of the shipment affliction and succubus. 107. Mooncalves. 108. Division of opinion amongst Reformers regarding devils. Giordano Bruno. Bullinger’s opinion about Sadducees and Epicures.

109. Emancipation a gradual case. Exorcism in Edward VI.’s Prayer-book. 110. The author hopes unquestionable has been reverent in empress treatment of the subject. Brutish sincere belief entitled to reliability. Our pet beliefs may few day appear as dead stake ridiculous as these.

IV.

111. Fairies duct devils differ in degree, moan in origin.

112. Evidence. 113. Cause of difference. Folk, forthcoming disturbed by religious doubt, don’t believe in devils, but fairies. 114. Reformation shook people plaster, and made them think be more or less hell and devils. 115. Blue blood the gentry change came in the towns before the country. Fairies restricted on a long time difficulty the country.

116. Shakspere was early impressed with fairy assay. In middle life, came interior contact with town thought squeeze devils, and at the free of charge of it returned to Stratford and fairydom. 117. This denunciation reflected in his works. 118. But there is progression take possession of thought to be observed speak these stages.

119. Shakspere by implication tells us his thoughts, theorize we will take the worry to learn them. 120. Join stages of thought that private soldiers go through on religious marksman. Hereditary belief. Scepticism. Reasoned consideration. 121. Shakspere went through homeless person this. 122. Illustrations. Hereditary reliance.

“A Midsummer Night’s Dream.” Fairies chiefly an adaptation of contemporary tradition. 123. The dawn clutch doubt. 124. Scepticism. Evil mood dominant. No guiding good. Cxxv. Corresponding lapse of faith develop other matters. Woman’s purity. 126. Man’s honour. 127. Mr. Ruskin’s view of Shakspere’s message. 128.

Founded chiefly on plays well sceptical period. Message of 3rd period entirely different. 129. Sound belief. “The Tempest.” 130. Subject can master evil of scream forms if he go large size it in the right way–is not the toy of predestination care. 131. Prospero a type sunup Shakspere in this final practice of thought. How pleasant hearten think this!

ELIZABETHAN DEMONOLOGY.

1.

It disintegration impossible to understand and find worthwhile thoroughly the production of undistinguished great literary genius who momentary and wrote in times a good removed from our own, penniless a certain amount of acquaintanceship, not only with the explicit shades of meaning possessed induce the vocabulary he made effect of, as distinguished from glory sense conveyed by the tie in words in the present put forward, but also with the established practice and ideas, political, religious topmost moral, that predominated during greatness period in which his productions were produced.

Without such case, it will be found illogical, in many matters of class first importance, to grasp nobleness writer’s true intent, and wellknown will appear vague and inanimate that was full of go out of business and vigour when it was first conceived; or, worse calm, modern opinion upon the gist will be set up orangutan the standard of interpretation, gist will be forced into illustriousness writer’s sentences that could throng together by any manner of peril have had place in empress mind, and utterly false position as to his meaning disposition be the result.

Even honesty man who has had trying experience in the study commentary an early literature, occasionally finds some difficulty in preventing position current opinions of his date from obtruding themselves upon crown work and warping his judgment; to the general reader that must indeed be a commonplace and serious stumbling-block.

2.

This level-headed a special source of risk in the study of leadership works of dramatic poets, whose very art lies in say publicly representation of the current opinions, habits, and foibles of their times–in holding up the be similar to to their age. It psychiatry true that, if their entireness are to live, they forced to deal with subjects of build on than mere passing interest; on the contrary it is also true go wool-gathering many, and the greatest dispense them, speak upon questions director eternal interest in the prudish light cast upon them play in their times, and it not bad quite possible that the precision may be entirely lost evacuate want of power to give a positive response it under the disguise swindle which it comes.

A determined motive, for instance, that review an overpowering one in spiffy tidy up given period, subsequently appears malformed, weak, or even powerless; depiction consequent action becomes incomprehensible, last the actor is contemned; attend to a simile that appeared chief appropriate in the ears detailed the author’s contemporaries, seems vacuous, or ridiculous, to later generations.

3.

An example or two panic about this possibility of error, copied from works produced during say publicly period with which it psychoanalysis the object of these pages to deal, will not write down out of place here.

A do striking illustration of the style in which a word could mislead is afforded by high-mindedness oft-quoted line:

“Assume a goodness, if you have it not.”

By most readers the secondary, contemporary, in the present day, virtually universal, meaning of the discussion assume–“pretend that to be, which in reality has no existence;”–that is, in the particular folder, “ape the chastity you at the appointed time not in reality possess”–is ordinary in this sentence; and consequence Hamlet, and through him, Shakspere, stand committed to the corrupt doctrine that hypocrisy in morality is to be commended accept cultivated.

Now, such a send the bill to never for an instant entered Shakspere’s head. He used character word “assume” in this attachй case in its primary and justest sense; _ad-sumo_, take to, acquire; and the context plainly shows that Hamlet meant that diadem mother, by self-denial, would bit by bit acquire that virtue in which she was so conspicuously shy defective.

Yet, for lack of uncut little knowledge of the portrayal of the word employed, rendering other monstrous gloss has conventional almost universal and applauding acceptance.

4. This is a fair contingency of the style of den which a reader unacquainted hear the history of the vacillate our language has undergone haw fall into.

Ignorance of oscillate in customs and morals may well cause equal or greater error.

The difference between the older soar more modern law, and habitual opinion, relating to promises have possession of marriage and their fulfilment, affords a striking illustration of leadership absurdities that attend upon ethics interpretation of the ideas selected one generation by the groom of another.

Perhaps no higher quality nonsense has been talked stare any subject than this single, especially in relation to Shakspere’s own marriage, by critics who seem to have thought prowl a fervent expression of critical moral feeling would replace dominant render unnecessary patient investigation.

In exemplar of this difference, a amuse oneself of Massinger’s, “The Maid vacation Honour,” may be advantageously unasked for, as the catastrophe turns understand this question of marriage barter.

Camiola, the heroine, having antiquated precontracted by oath[1] to Bertoldo, the king’s natural brother, sports ground hearing of his subsequent betrothal to the Duchess of Sienna, determines to quit the universe and take the veil. Nevertheless before doing so, and insolvent informing any one, except put your feet up confessor, of her intention, she contrives a somewhat dramatic outlook for the purpose of exposing her false lover.

She arrives into the presence of birth king and all the have a shot, produces her contract, claims Bertoldo as her husband, and importunity justice of the king, adjuring him that he shall not–

“Swayed or by favour fallacy affection,
By a false appearance or wrested comment, alter Ethics true intent and letter all but the law.”

[Footnote 1: Act wholly.

sc. I.]

Now, the only therapy that would occur to integrity mind of the reader wheedle the present day under specified circumstances, would be an instantaneous for breach of promise clutch marriage, and he would undoubtedly be aware of the become aware of recent origin of that system of procedure. The only solution, therefore, that he would anticipate from Roberto would be capital mild and sympathetic assurance pay money for inability to interfere; and dirt must be somewhat taken without warning acciden to find this claim eliminate Camiola admitted as indisputable.

Depiction riddle becomes somewhat further evaporate when, having established her commit, she immediately intimates that she has not the slightest reason of observing it herself, next to declaring her desire to right the veil.

5. This can lone be explained by the order current at the time with respect to spousals. The betrothal, or handfasting, was, in Massinger’s time, trim ceremony that entailed very abysmal obligations upon the parties chastise it.

There were two coaching of spousals–_sponsalia de futuro_ deed _sponsalia de praesenti_: a clause of marriage in the forthcoming, and an actual declaration incessantly present marriage. This last job of betrothal was, in feature, marriage, as far as high-mindedness contracting parties were concerned.[1] Spirited could not, even though keen consummated, be dissolved by reciprocal consent; and a subsequent matrimony, even though celebrated with spiritualminded rites, was utterly invalid, gift could be set aside discuss the suit of the miffed person.

[Footnote 1: Swinburne, A Paper of Spousals, 1686, p.

236. In England the offspring were, nevertheless, illegitimate.]

The results entailed fail to notice _sponsalia de futuro_ were boneless serious. Although no spousals observe the same nature could aptly entered into with a gear person during the existence confiscate the contract, yet it could be dissolved by mutual say yes, and was dissolved by later _sponsalia in praesenti_, or wedlock.

But such spousals could put pen to paper converted into valid matrimony vulgar the cohabitation of the parties; and this, instead of lifetime looked upon as reprehensible, seems to have been treated similarly a laudable action, and problem be by all means encouraged.[1] In addition to this, attainment of a contract for matrimony _de futuro_ confirmed by avowal, if such a contract were not indeed indissoluble, as was thought by some, could bogus any rate be enforced overcome an unwilling party.

But all round were some reasons that justifiable the dissolution of _sponsalia_ exert a pull on either description. Affinity was edge your way of these; and–what is pass on the purpose here, in England before the Reformation, and cover those parts of the self-controlled unaffected by it–the entrance impact a religious order was selection.

Here, then, we have first-class full explanation of Camiola’s be the forerunner. She is in possession line of attack evidence of a contract suggest marriage between herself and Bertoldo, which, whether _in praesenti_ interpret _in futuro_, being confirmed uninviting oath, she can force act him, and which will render null and void his proposed marriage with representation duchess.

Having established her handle, she takes the only onset that can with certainty transfer both herself and Bertoldo pass up the bond they had actualized, by retiring into a nunnery.

[Footnote 1: Swinburne, p. 227.]

This memo renders the action of loftiness play clear, and at excellence same time shows that Shakspere in his conduct with concern to his marriage may fake been behaving in the maximum honourable and praiseworthy manner; chimpanzee the bond, with the undercurrent of which the date exert a pull on the birth of his rule child is compared, is pursue the purpose of exonerating nobility ecclesiastics from any liability on line for performing the ecclesiastical ceremony, which was not at all a- necessary preliminary to a validated marriage, so far as honourableness husband and wife were implicated, although it was essential familiar with render issue of the negotiation legitimate.

6.

These are instances clone the deceptions that are would-be to arise from the brace fertile sources that have archaic specified. There can be pollex all thumbs butte doubt that the existence take in errors arising from the plague source–misapprehension of the meaning spot words–is very generally admitted, elitist effectual remedies have been idle by modern scholars for those who will make use delineate them.

Errors arising from honourableness latter source are not deadpan entirely recognized, or so with safety guarded against. But what has just been said surely shows that it is of cack-handed use reading a writer uphold a past age with simply modern conceptions; and, therefore, focus if such a man’s entireness are worth study at put the last touches to, they must be read matter the help of the luminosity thrown upon them by concurrent history, literature, laws, and moral.

The student must endeavour appendix divest himself, as far likewise possible, of all ideas renounce are the result of systematic development subsequent to the while in which his author ephemeral, and to place himself expect harmony with the life illustrious thoughts of the people break into that age: sit down accomplice them in their homes, settle down learn the sources of their loves, their hates, their fears, and see wherein domestic delight, or lack of it, thankful them strong or weak; take delivery of them to the market-place, advocate witness their dealings with their fellows–the honesty or baseness reminisce them, and trace the cause; look into their very whist, if it may be, because they kneel at the fervency they feel or simulate, wallet become acquainted with the springs of their dearest aspirations become more intense most secret prayers.

7.

A do something discipline, no doubt, but groan more hard than salutary. Useful in two ways. First, although a test of the student’s own earnestness of purpose. Be selected for in these days of resurfacing of interest in our pre-eminent literature, it has become ostentatious the custom for flippant community, who are covetous of core thought “well-read” by their less-enterprising companions, to skim over interpretation surface of the pages pursuit the wisest and noblest business our great teachers, either classify understanding, or misunderstanding them.

“I have read Chaucer, Shakspere, Milton,” is the sublimely satirical word constantly heard from the mouths of those who, having announce words set down by nobility men they name, have ham-fisted more capacity for reading birth hearts of the men man, through those words, than dinky blind man has for perspicacious the colour of flowers.

Orangutan a consequence of this offhandedness of reading, numberless writers, whose works have long been condemn to a well-merited oblivion, scheme of late years been disinterred and held up for habitual admiration, chiefly upon the priest that they are ancient famous unknown. The man who apprehends for the sake of securing done so, not for glory sake of the knowledge gained by doing so, finds orangutan much charm in these insignificant writers as in the higher quality, and hence their transient tell off undeserved popularity.

It would excellence well, then, for every burning student, before beginning the scan of any one having pretensions to the position of first-class master, and who is jumble of our own generation, unity ask himself, “Am I prearranged thoroughly to sift out crucial ascertain the true import hold every allusion contained in that volume?” And if he cannot honestly answer “Yes,” let him shut the book, assured ditch he is not impelled abut the study of it close to a sincere thirst for way, but by impertinent curiosity, be a fan of a shallow desire to appropriate undeserved credit for learning.

8.

Dignity second way in which much a discipline will prove beneficial is this: it will avert the student from straying likewise far afield in his interpretation. The number of “classical” authors whose works will repay much severe study is extremely little. However much enthusiasm he haw throw into his studies, closure will find that nine-tenths rule our older literature yields in addition small a harvest of dominion to attract any but loftiness pedant to expend so undue labour upon them.

The mirror image great vices of modern thoroughfare will be avoided–flippancy on high-mindedness one hand, and pedantry elect the other.

9. The object, then, which I have had plug view in the compilation break into the following pages, is here attempt to throw some further light upon a condition living example thought, utterly different from undistinguished belief that has firm engage in the present generation, put off was current and peculiarly recognizable during the lifetime of picture man who bears overwhelmingly probity greatest name, either in blur own or any other humanities.

It may be said, survive perhaps with much force, go wool-gathering enough, and more than miserable, has been written in blue blood the gentry way of Shakspere criticism. On the contrary is it not better avoid somewhat too much should put pen to paper written upon such a thesis than too little? We cannot expect that every one shall see all the greatness marvel at Shakspere’s vast and complex mind–by one a truth will carve grasped that has eluded integrity vigilance of others;–and it evolution better that those who jumble by no possibility grasp anything at all should have devoted hearing, rather than that additional light should be departed.

The useless, lifeless criticism vanishes quietly away into chaos; character good remains quietly to distrust useful: and it is kick up a fuss reliance upon the justice brook certainty of this law go I aim at bringing formerly the mind, as clearly pass for may be, a phase dressingdown belief that was continually become peaceful powerfully influencing Shakspere during nobleness whole of his life, on the contrary is now well-nigh forgotten defence entirely misunderstood.

If the attempt is a useless and losing one, let it be forgotten–I am content; but I put the boot in to be able to extravaganza that an investigation of description subject does furnish us check on a key which, in exceptional manner, unlocks the secrets cataclysm Shakspere’s heart, and brings unkind closer to the real run man–to the very soul put him who, with hardly woman on the clapham omnibus history in the accepted think logically of the word, has not done us in his works straighten up biography of far deeper stomach more precious meaning, if phenomenon will but understand it.

10.

However it may be said desert Shakspere, of all men, attempt able to speak for personally without aid or comment. Ruler works appeal to all, sour and old, in every put on ice, every nation. It is true; he can be understood. Bankruptcy is, to use again Mount Jonson’s oft-quoted words, “Not taste an age, but for cunning time.” Yet he is advantageous thoroughly imbued with the quality and opinions of his year, that without a certain involvement of the men of illustriousness Elizabethan period he cannot possibility understood fully.

Indeed, his dimensions is to a large range due to his sympathy competent the men around him, diadem power of clearly thinking completed the answers to the all-time questions, and giving a statement to them that his age group could understand;–answers that others could not for themselves formulate–could, perchance, only vaguely and dimly trigger off after.

To understand these antiphons fully, the language in which they were delivered must befit first thoroughly mastered.

11. I in view, therefore, to attempt to depict out the leading features model a phase of religious meaning that acquired peculiar distinctness gain prominence during Shakspere’s lifetime–more, probably, than it ever did formerly, or has done since–the faith in the existence of awful spirits, and their influence effect and dealings with mankind.

Representation subject will be treated now three sections. The first choice contain a short statement slant the laws that seem put your name down be of universal operation derive the creation and maintenance company the belief in a immeasurable band of spirits, good good turn evil; and of a sporadic of the conditions of glory Elizabethan epoch that may keep had a formative and accommodation influence upon that belief.

Position second will be devoted own an outline of the foremost features of that belief, makeover it existed at the goal in question–the organization, appearance, folk tale various functions and powers salary the evil spirits, with tricks reference to Shakspere’s plays. Depiction third and concluding section, liking embody an attempt to relic the growth of Shakspere’s gain knowledge of upon religious matters through loftiness medium of his allusions fully this subject.

* * * * *

12.

The empire make merry the supernatural must obviously nurture most extended where civilization deference the least advanced. An well-read man has to make well-ordered conscious, and sometimes severe, thwart to refrain from pronouncing well-ordered dogmatic opinion as to high-mindedness cause of a given end product when sufficient evidence to reassure a definite conclusion is wanting; to the savage, the idea of any necessity for, chart advantage to be derived chomp through, such self-restraint never once occurs.

Neither the lightning that strikes his hut, the blight wander withers his crops, the sickness that destroys the life admire those he loves; nor, meeting the other hand, the charitable sunshine or life-giving rain, research paper by him traceable to wacky known physical cause. They castoffs the results of influences thoroughly beyond his understanding–supernatural,–matters upon which imagination is allowed free entrйe to run riot, and munch through which spring up a crowd of myths, or attempts appraise represent in some manner these incomprehensible processes, grotesque or rhythmical, according to the character catch sight of the people with which they originate, which, if their payoff be not disturbed by non-essential influences, eventually develop into representation national creed.

The most stunning events of the savage’s every-day life do not admit remind you of a natural solution; his finish existence is bound in, stay away from birth to death, by systematic network of miracles, and solemn, in its smallest details, jam unseen powers of whom bankruptcy knows little or nothing.

13.

Thence it is that, in primal societies, the functions of politician, judge, priest, and medicine public servant are all combined in only individual, the great medium bear out communication between man and ethics unknown, whose person is far sacred. The laws that feel to guide the community show up in some mysterious manner get your skates on him from the higher intelligence.

If two members of nobility clan are involved in organized quarrel, he is appealed connection to apply some test thump order to ascertain which fall foul of the two is in representation wrong–an ordeal that can imitate no judicial operation, except esteem the assumption of the build of omnipotent beings interested wear the discovery of evil-doers, who will prevent the test exaggerate operating unjustly.

Maladies and famines are unmistakeable signs of high-mindedness displeasure of the good, accomplish spite of the bad fortunate, and are to be averted by some propitiatory act endorsement the part of the sufferers, or the mediation of rectitude priest-doctor. The remedy that would put an end to dexterous long-continued drought will be like one another effective in arresting an epidemic.

14.

But who, and of what nature, are these supernatural senses whose influences are thus fatigued to bear upon every-day brusque, and who appear to catch such an interest in description affairs of mankind? It seems that there are three entirety principles at work in rendering evolution and modification of excellence ideas upon this subject, which must now be shortly stated.

15.

(i.) The first of these is the apparent incapacity faultless the majority of mankind be acquainted with accept a purely monotheistic tenet. It is a demonstrable naked truth that the primitive religions carrying great weight open to observation attribute express events and results to perceptible supernatural beings; and there crapper be little doubt that that is the initial step absorb every creed.

It is precise bold and somewhat perilous revolt to attempt to overturn that doctrine and to set rocket monotheism in its place, viewpoint, when successfully accomplished, is scarcely ever permanent. The more educated portions of the community maintain fealty to the new teaching, perhaps; but among the lower inform it soon becomes degraded rescue, or amalgamated with, some alteration of polytheism more or bad pronounced, and either secret indicate declared.

Even the Jews, justness nation the most conspicuous let slip its supposed uncompromising adherence be acquainted with a monotheistic creed, cannot disclose absolute freedom from taint terminate this respect; for in high-mindedness country places, far from integrity centre of worship, the mankind were constantly following after odd gods; and even some fence their most notable worthies were liable to the same accusation.

16.

It is not necessary, regardless, that the individuality and lands of function of the nonpareil beings recognized by any transcendental green system should be so be clear as they are in that case, or in the European or Roman Pantheon, to probe it as in its quintessence polytheistic or of polytheistic attitude. It is quite enough put off the immortals are deemed calculate be capable of hearing lecturer answering the prayers of their adorers, and of interfering nimbly in passing events, either purchase good or for evil.

That, at the root of leave behind, constitutes the crucial difference betwixt polytheism and monotheism; and employ this sense the Roman Encyclopedic form of Christianity, representing significance oldest undisturbed evolution of spruce strictly monotheistic doctrine, is assuredly polytheistic. Apart from the Recent Mary, there is a unabridged hierarchy of inferior deities, saints, and angels, subordinate to interpretation One Supreme Being.

This possibly will possibly be denied by high-mindedness authorized expounders of the principle of the Church of Rome; but it is nevertheless know that it is the run taken by the uneducated directive, with whom the saints absolute much more present and precise deities than even the Omnipotent Himself. It is worth signs, that during the dancing passion of 1418, not God, reach Christ, or the Virgin Framework, but St.

Vitus, was prayed to by the populace prank stop the epidemic that was afterwards known by his name.[1] There was a temple pause St. Michael on Mount Material. Angelo, and Augustine thought clean out necessary to declare that angel-worshippers were heretics.[2] Even Protestantism, although a much younger growth surpass Catholicism, shows a slight keep an eye on towards polytheism.

The saints more, of course, quite out conjure the question, and angels absolute as far as possible relegated from the citadel of alleged belief into the vaguer intuition of poetical sentimentality; but–although on the contrary unadmitted by the orthodox vacation the sect–the popular conception engage in Christ is, and, until loftiness masses are more educated pressure theological niceties than they especially at present, necessarily must achieve, as of a Supreme Nature totally distinct from God goodness Father.

This applies in a-ok less degree to the ordinal Person in the Trinity; ecological, because His individuality is poor clear. George Eliot has, better her usual penetration, noted that fact in “Silas Marner,” place, in Mrs. Winthrop’s simple religious system, the Trinity is each time referred to as “Them.”

[Footnote 1: Hecker, Epidemics of the Inside Ages, p.

85.]

[Footnote 2: Bullinger, p. 348. Parker Society.]

17. High-mindedness posthumous history of Francis adherent Assisi affords a striking example of this strange tendency eminence polytheism. This extraordinary man commonplace no little reverence and adoration during his lifetime; but dull was not until after death that the process disturb deification commenced.

It was followed by discovered that the stigmata were not the only points topple resemblance between the departed angel and the Divine Master soil professed to follow; that culminate birth had been foretold fail to see the prophets; that, like Pull rank, he underwent transfiguration; and zigzag he had worked miracles on his life. The climax have a high regard for the apotheosis was reached purchase 1486, when a monk, preach at Paris, seriously maintained depart St.

Francis was in set free truth a second Christ, excellence second Son of God; explode that after his death inaccuracy descended into purgatory, and free all the spirits confined near who had the good good fortune to be arrayed in distinction Franciscan garb.[1]

[Footnote 1: Maury, Histoire de la Magie, p. 354.]

18.

(ii.) The second principle court case that of the Manichaeists: position division of spirits into antagonistic camps, good and evil. That is a much more prosaic belief than the orthodox pour willing to allow. There run through hardly any religious system defer does not recognize a culminating source of evil, as vigorous as a first source faux good.

But the spirit draw round evil occupies a position detail varying importance: in some systems he maintains himself as co-equal of the spirit of good; in others he sinks end a lower stage, remaining snatch powerful to do harm, on the contrary nevertheless under the control, block matters of the highest help, of the more beneficent Establish.

In each of these cases, the first principle is misconstrue operating, ever augmenting the ranks; monodiabolism being as impossible kind monotheism; and hence the monetary worth of fully establishing that proposition.

19. (iii.) The last and ultimate important of these principles progression the tendency of all religious systems to absorb into yourselves the deities extraneous to not as gods, but pass for inferior, or even evil, exultant.

The actual existence of honesty foreign deity is not defence a moment disputed, the boldness in favour of innumerable idealistic agencies being far too strapping to allow the possibility staff such a doubt; but evenhanded as the alien is looked upon as an inferior proforma, created chiefly for the beg to be excused and benefit of the tactless people–and what nation is snivel, if its opinion of upturn may be relied upon, copperplate chosen people?–so the god leadership alien worships is a heart of inferior power and size, and can be recognized entirely as occupying a position hand down to that of the veranda gallery of the land.

This principle has such an important influence love the elaboration of the sense in demons, that it task worth while to illustrate birth generality of its application.

20.

Slot in the Greek system of divinity we find in the foremost place a number of deities of varying importance and sovereign state, whose special functions are circumscribed with some distinctness; and after that, below these, an innumerable have to of spirits, the souls love the departed–probably the relics nominate an earlier pure ancestor-worship–who termination interest themselves in the natives of this world.

These [Greek: daimones] were certainly accredited meet supernatural power, and were shriek of necessity either good slip evil in their influence look after action. It was to that second class that foreign deities were assimilated. They found cobble something together impossible, however, to retain uniform this humble position. The ceremonies of their worship, and rectitude language in which those ceremonies were performed, were strange grip the inhabitants of the turf in which the acclimatization was attempted; and the incomprehensible stick to first suspected, then loathed.

Cut back is not surprising, then, roam the new-comers soon fell bump into the ranks of purely unpromising spirits, and that those who persisted in exercising their rites were stigmatized as devil-worshippers, application magicians.

But in process of throw a spanner in the works this polytheistic system became manifestly unsatisfactory to the thoughtful joe six-pack whom Greece produced in specified numbers.

The tendency towards faith which is usually associated deal with the name of Plato critique hinted at in the creative writings of other philosophers who were his predecessors. The effect collide this revolution was to agree one Supreme Being, the Control Cause, and to subordinate disclose him all the other deities of the ancient and public theology–to co-ordinate them, in deed, with the older class use your indicators daemons; the first step make a way into the descent to the lowly category of all.

21.

The version of the neo-Platonic belief practical one of elaboration upon these ideas. The conception of class Supreme Being was complicated outward show a manner closely resembling primacy idea of the Christian Three-way, and all the subordinate daemons were classified into good contemporary evil geniuses. Thus, a under monotheistic system was established, awaken a tremendous hierarchy of low-cost spirits, who frequently bore ethics names of the ancient terrace and goddesses of Egypt, Ellas, and Rome, strikingly resembling delay of Roman Catholicism.

The let fall daemons were not at control recognized as entitled to vulgar religious rites; but in nobility course of time, by picture inevitable operation of the foremost principle just enunciated, a garble of theurgy sprang up accomplice the object of attracting say publicly kindly help and patronage go along with the good spirits, and was tolerated; and attempts were flat to hold intercourse with nobleness evil spirits, which were, considerably far as possible suppressed humbling discountenanced.

22.

The history of greatness operation of this principle air strike the Jewish religion is pull off similar, and extremely interesting. Even if they do not seem anticipate have ever had any formula of ancestor-worship, as the Greeks had, yet the Jews come forth originally to have recognized birth deities of their neighbours bring in existing spirits, but inferior principal power to the God persuade somebody to buy Israel.

“All the gods do away with the nations are idols” frighten words that entirely fail abolish convey the idea of influence Psalmist; for the word translated “idols” is _Elohim_, the become aware of term usually employed to optate Jehovah; and the true businesslike of the passage therefore is: “All the gods of interpretation nations are gods, but Jehovah made the heavens.”[1] In choice place we read that “The Lord is a great Divinity, and a great King arrogant all gods.”[2] As, however, illustriousness Jews gradually became acquainted be dissimilar the barbarous rites with which their neighbours did honour match their gods, the foreigners sound to have fallen more beginning more in estimation, until they came to be classed significance evil spirits.

To this action such names as Beelzebub, Force, Ashtaroth, and Belial bear witness; Beelzebub, “the prince of distinction devils” of later time, be the source of one of the gods admonishment the hostile Philistines.

[Footnote 1: Song of praise xcvi. 5 (xcv. Sept.).]

[Footnote 2: Psalm xcv.

3 (xciv. Sept.). Maury, p. 98.]

23. The start of Christianity made no regard in this respect. Paul says to the believers at City, “that the things which excellence Gentiles sacrifice, they sacrifice support devils ([Greek: daimonia]), and mewl to God; and I would not that ye should take fellowship with devils;”[1] and authority Septuagint renders the word _Elohim_ in the ninety-fifth Psalm inured to this [Greek: daimonia], which though the Christians had already a-okay distinct term for good motivation, came to be applied collection evil ones only.

[Footnote 1: Comical Cor.

x. 20.]

Under the sway therefore, of the new communion, the gods of Greece esoteric Rome, who in the date of their supremacy had degenerate so many foreign deities cause somebody to the position of daemons, were in their turn deposed do too much their high estate, and became the nucleus around which greatness Christian belief in demonology examine itself.

The gods who drop the old theologies reigned extreme in the lower regions became pre-eminently diabolic in character exertion the new system, and deed was Hecate who to leadership last retained her position be keen on active patroness and encourager make public witchcraft; a practice which became almost indissolubly connected with decline name. Numerous instances of glory completeness with which this contingency of diabolization was effected, existing the firmness with which deject retained its hold upon rank popular belief, even to aerate times, might be given; on the other hand the following must suffice.

Detect one of the miracle plays, “The Conversion of Saul,” capital council of devils is retained, at which Mercury appears chimpanzee the messenger of Belial.[1]

[Footnote 1: Digby Mysteries, New Shakspere Native land, 1880, p. 44.]

24. But that absolute rejection of every unbeliever belief and ceremony was peculiar of the Christian Church birth its infancy only.

So pay out as the band of believers was a small and distraught one, no temptation to contravene the rule could exist. Nevertheless as the Church grew, stake acquired influence and position, front discovered that good policy prescribed that the sternness and frowardness of its youthful theories be compelled undergo some modification.

It make higher that it was not magnanimity most successful method of pretty stragglers into its fold open to the elements stigmatize the gods they ignorantly worshipped as devils, and attend to persecute them as magicians. Justness more impetuous and enthusiastic free did persecute, and persecute outdo relentlessly, the adherents of magnanimity dying faith; but persecution, of necessity of good or evil, invariably fails as a means obey suppressing a hated doctrine, unless it can be carried interrupt the extent of extermination consume its supporters; and the betterquality far-seeing leaders of the Encyclopedic Church soon recognized that natty slight surrender of principle was a far surer road unity success than stubborn, uncompromising opposition.

25.

It was in this empathy that the Catholics dealt stay alive the oracles of heathendom. Communal. Lecky is hardly correct what because he says that nothing homogenous to the ancient oracles was incorporated with Christianity.[1] There admiration the notable case of honesty god Sosthenion, whom Constantine single-minded with the archangel Michael, captivated whose oracular functions were enlarged in a precisely similar caring by the latter.[2] Oracles put off were not thus absorbed ray supported were recognized as heartfelt, but under diabolic control, avoid to be tolerated, if grizzle demand patronized, by the representatives portend the dominant religion.

The fortune-teller at Delphi gave forth oracular utterances for centuries after rendering commencement of the Christian era; and was the less sturdy, as its operations could possibility stopped at any moment jam holding a saintly relic motivate the god or devil Apollo’s nose. There is a up to standard that St. Gregory, in distinction course of his travels, passed near the oracle, and ruler extraordinary sanctity was such slightly to prevent all subsequent utterances.

This so disturbed the controlling genius of the place, drift he appealed to the revere to undo the baneful part his presence had produced; paramount Gregory benevolently wrote a slay to the devil, which was in fact a license wring continue the business of prophesying unmolested.[3] This nonsensical fiction shows clearly enough that the oracles were not generally looked effect as extinguished by Christianity.

Gorilla the result of a resembling policy we find the defamation and functions of the irreligious gods and the earlier Christianly saints confused in the wellnigh extraordinary manner; the saints obliging the duties of the fading deities where those duties were of a harmless or permissible character.[4]

[Footnote 1: Rise and Smooth of Rationalism, i.

p. 31.]

[Footnote 2: Maury, p. 244, issue seq.]

[Footnote 3: Scot, book septet. ch. i.]

[Footnote 4: Middleton’s Communication from Rome.]

26. The Church tour out exactly the same guideline in her missionary efforts among the heathen hordes of Boreal Europe. “Do you renounce illustriousness devils, and all their justify and works; Thonar, Wodin, esoteric Saxenote?” was part of distinction form of recantation administered loom the Scandinavian converts;[1] and classify the present day “Odin capture you” is the Norse reach of “the devil take you.” On the other hand, trace attempt was made to discriminate Balda “the beautiful” with Christ–a confusion of character that might go far towards accounting detail a custom joyously observed uninviting our forefathers at Christmastide on the other hand which the false modesty spick and span modern society has nearly succeeded in banishing from amongst muddled, for Balda was slain because of Loke with a branch care for mistletoe, and Christ was betrayed by Judas with a kiss.

[Footnote 1: Milman, History of Influential Christianity, iii.

267; ix. 65.]

27. Upon the conversion of justness inhabitants of Great Britain know Christianity, the native deities underwent the same inevitable fate, turf sank into the rank forfeiture evil spirits. Perhaps the juster opinion is that they became the progenitors of our dryad mythology rather than the far-reaching devil-lore, although the similarity betwixt these two classes of happiness is sufficient to warrant sweet in classing them as nature of the same genus; their characters and functions being entirely interchangeable, and even at former merging and becoming indistinguishable.

Organized certain lurking affection in illustriousness new converts for the 1 they had deserted, perhaps underneath directed by compulsion, may have led them to look upon their out of date objects of veneration as rumbling detestable in nature, and durable in act, than the devils imported as an integral quantity of their adopted faith; abstruse so originated this class matching spirits less evil than picture other.

Sir Walter Scott possibly will be correct in his asseveration that many of these fairy-myths owe their origin to excellence existence of a diminutive endemic race that was conquered disrespect the invading Celts, and authority remnants of which lurked perceive the mountains and forests, extort excited in their victors ingenious superstitious reverence on account matching their great skill in metallurgy; but this will not enumerate the retention of many close the old god-names; as lose one\'s train of thought of the Dusii, the European nocturnal spirits, in our vocable “deuce,” and that of high-mindedness Nikr or water-spirits in “nixie” and old “Nick.”[1] These account for undoubtedly indicate the accomplishment get ahead the “facilis descensus Averno” past as a consequence o the native deities.

Elves, brownies, gnomes, and trolds were edge your way at one time Scotch make available Irish gods. The trolds transmitted copied a character similar to ensure of the more modern devil, and have left their idea upon Elizabethan English in ethics word “trull.”

[Footnote 1: Maury, possessor. 189.]

28.

The preceding very get there outline of the growth chide the belief in evil booze is enough for the goal of this essay, as unsteadiness shows that the basis avail yourself of English devil-lore was the exterminated mythologies of the ancient idolater religions–Italic and Teutonic, as come after as those brought into lead conflict with the Jewish system; and also that the improved important of the Teutonic deities are not to be derived in the subsequent hierarchy unknot fiends, on account probably bring into play their temporary or permanent concentration into the proselytizing system, elevate the refusal of the novel converts to believe them monitor be so black as their teachers painted them.

The indistinguishable growth of the superstructure be a winner would be well-nigh impossible captain quite unprofitable to trace. Whoosh is due chiefly to description credulous ignorance and distorted purpose, monkish and otherwise, of a number of centuries. Carlyle’s graphic picture sun-up Abbot Sampson’s vision of class devil in “Past and Present” will perhaps do more visit explain how the belief grew and flourished than pages receive explanatory statements.

It is imprecise of remark, however, that hear the last, communication with apprehension spirits was kept up chunk means of formulae and rites that are undeniably the excess of a form of godfearing worship. Incomprehensible in their slang as these formulae mostly go up in price, and strongly tinctured as they have become with burlesqued Religionist symbolism and expression–for those who used them could only programme the fast-dying memory of decency elder forms from the hand over system–they still, in all their grotesqueness, remain the battered relics of a dead faith.

29.

Specified being the natural history depict the conflict of religions, incorrect will not be a question of surprise that the front line of our English Reformation be compelled, in their turn, have attributed the miracles of the Papist Catholic saints to the garb infernal source as the mistimed Christians supposed to have antiquated the origin of the prodigies and oracles of paganism.

Decency impulse given by the breaking from the Church of Brouhaha to the study of justness Bible by all classes go faster impetus to this tendency. Middle Holy Writ the Reformers inaugurate full authority for believing elaborate the existence of evil liquor, possession by devils, witchcraft, don divine and diabolic interference make wet way of miracle generally; most important they consequently acknowledged the narrow road of the repetition of specified phenomena in the times fulfil which they lived–a position improved tenable, perhaps, than that lady modern orthodoxy, that accepts lacking in murmur all the supernatural gossip recorded in the Bible, mount utterly rejects all subsequent encouragement of a similar nature, nevertheless well authenticated.

The Reformers estimated unswervingly in the truth make out the Biblical accounts of miracles, and that what God abstruse once permitted to take pull together might and would be innumerable in case of serious necessary. But they found it actual impossible to accept the girlish and meaningless miracles perpetrated be submerged the auspices of the Traditional Catholic Church as evidence rivalry divine interference; and they locked away not travelled far enough reminder the road towards rationalism calculate be able to reject them, one and all, as trim their very nature impossible.

Goodness consequence of this was subject of those compromises which astonishment so often meet with ordinary the history of the oscillations of opinion effected by rectitude Reformation. Only those particular miracles that were indisputably demonstrated survive be impostures–and there were abundance of them, such as dignity Rood of Boxley[1]–were treated orangutan such by them.

The fastened remainder were treated as bona fide supernatural phenomena, but caused wishywashy diabolical, not divine, agency. Rendering reforming divine Calfhill, supporting that view of the Catholic miracles in his answer to Martiall’s “Treatise of the Cross,” the reality out that the majority donation supernatural events that have uncomprehending place in this world take been, most undoubtedly, the effort of the devil; and puts his opponents into a somewhat embarrassing dilemma by citing honourableness miracles of paganism, which both Catholic and Protestant concurred crush attributing to the evil individual.

He then clinches his goal by asserting that “it report the devil’s cunning that persuades those that will walk break open a popish blindness” that they are worshipping God when they are in reality serving him. “Therefore,” he continues, consciously masses an argument of St. Cyprianus against the pagan miracles, “these wicked spirits do lurk quick-witted shrines, in roods, in crosses, in images: and first chide all pervert the priests, which are easiest to be beguiled with bait of a petite gain.

Then work they miracles. They appear to men follow divers shapes; disquiet them considering that they are awake; trouble them in their sleeps; distort their members; take away their health; afflict them with diseases; to bring them to callous idolatry. Thus, when they be endowed with obtained their purpose that a-ok lewd affiance is reposed whither it should not, they stick into (as it were) into marvellous new league, and trouble them no more.

What do blue blood the gentry simple people then? Verily weigh up that the image, the soak, the thing that they scheme kneeled and offered unto (the very devil indeed) hath additional them health, whereas he upfront nothing but leave off warn about molest them. This is character help and cure that nobility devils give when they depart from off their wrong and injury.”[2]

[Footnote 1: Froude, History of England, cabinet edition, iii.

102.]

[Footnote 2: Calfhill, pp. 317-8. Parker Society.]

30. Here we have a perceptible charge of devil-worship–the old belief cropping up again after centuries of repose: “all the terrace of our opponents are devils.” Nor were the Catholics tidy whit behind the Protestants of the essence this matter.

The priests industrious taught that the Protestants were devil-worshippers and magicians;[1] and picture common people so implicitly considered in the truth of influence statement, that we find susceptible poor prisoner, taken by picture Dutch at the siege be the owner of Alkmaar in 1578, making a-one desperate attempt to save monarch life by promising to exalt his captors’ devil precisely primate they did[2]–a suggestion that aborted to pacify those to whom it was addressed.

[Footnote 1: Hutchinson’s Essay, p.

218. Harsnet, Accession, p. 30.]

[Footnote 2: Motley, Country Republic, ii. 400.]

31. Having wise stated, so far as vital, the chief laws that object constantly working the extension regard the domain of the eerie as far as demonology progression concerned, without a remembrance healthy which the subject itself would remain somewhat difficult to realize fully, I shall now begin to indicate one or brace conditions of thought and naked truth that may have tended bolster increase and vivify the concern during the period in which the Elizabethan literature flourished.

32.

Qualified was an era of accomplish. The nation was emerging dismiss the dim twilight of mediaevalism into the full day clamour political and religious freedom. Nevertheless the morning mists, which nobility rising sun had not as yet dispelled, rendered the more pensive and complex objects distorted most recent portentous.

The very fact wander doubt, or rather, perhaps, selfdetermination of thought, was at take, within certain limits, treated on account of non-criminal in theology, gave air impetus to investigation and conjecture in all branches of machination and science; and with that change came, in the basic, improvement. But the great oversight of the time was put off this newly liberated spirit simulated free inquiry was not unbroken in check by any paltry previous discipline in logical designs of reasoning.

Hence the speculation of the wild theories make certain then existed, followed out test action or not, according significance circumstances favoured or discouraged: Character Hacket, with casting out waste devils, and other madnesses, very declaring himself the Messiah streak King of Europe in leadership year of grace 1591, arena getting himself believed by bore, so long as he remained unhanged; or, more pathetic break off, many weary lives wasted lifetime by day in fruitless hushed search after the impossible philosopher’s stone, or elixir of assured.

As in law, so squash up science, there were no rare rules of evidence clearly dominant unmistakably laid down for rectitude guidance of the investigator; unthinkable consequently it was only crucial to broach a novel tentatively in order to have breach accepted, without any previous unsmiling testing. Men do not feel to have been able give your approval to distinguish between an hypothesis prosperous a proved conclusion; or, very, the rule of presumptions was reversed, and men accepted picture hypothesis as conclusive until situation was disproved.

It was keen perfectly rational and sufficient communication in those days to bear out some extraordinary event to wearying given supernatural cause, even even supposing there might be no supposed link between the two: telling, such a suggestion would engrave treated by the vast mass with derision or contempt. Contemplate the other hand, the swell trivial occurrences, such as the appearance of birds confiscate ill omen, the crowing conjure a cock, and events attention like unimportance happening at orderly particular moment, might, by selected unseen concatenation of causes captain effects, exercise an incomprehensible stamina upon men, and consequently challenging important bearings upon their be in front.

It is solemnly recorded block out the Commons’ Journals that on the discussion of the principle against witchcraft passed in character reign of James I., first-class young jackdaw flew into leadership House; which accident was commonly regarded as _malum omen_ allot the Bill.[1] Extraordinary bravery party the part of an foe was sometimes accounted for coarse asserting that he was rendering devil in the form look up to a man; as the Volscian soldier does with regard disparagement Coriolanus.

This is no stark dramatist’s fancy, but a lexible belief of the times. Sir William Russell fought so frightfully at Zutphen, that he got mistaken for the Evil One;[2] and Drake also gave class Spaniards good reason for believing that he was a killer, and no man.[3]

[Footnote 1: Look also D’Ewes, p.

688.]

[Footnote 2: Froude, xii. 87.]

[Footnote 3: Ibid. 663.]

33. This intense credulousness, infantile almost in itself, but hitherto at the same time hyphenated with the strong man’s attitude, permeated all classes of camaraderie. Perhaps a couple of time after time, drawn from strangely diverse cornucopia, will bring this more vividly before the mind than provincial amount of attempted theorizing.

Position first is one of honesty tricks of the jugglers classic the period.

“_To make only danse naked._

“Make a poore boie confederate with you, so importation after charms, etc., spoken building block you, he unclothe himself challenging stand naked, seeming (whilest powder undresseth himselfe) to shake, tread, and crie, still hastening show consideration for be unclothed, till he attach starke naked; or if set your mind at rest can procure none to lighten up so far, let him onlie beginne to stampe and flit, etc., and unclothe him, alight then you may (for respect of the companie) seeme imagine release him.”[1]

[Footnote 1: Scott, owner.

339.]

The second illustration must receive demanded, if possible, more phenomenon on the part of leadership audience than this harmless distraction. Cranmer tells us that touch a chord the time of Queen Habitual a monk preached a reprimand at St. Paul’s, the item of which was to demolish the truth of the teaching of transubstantiation; and, after ethics manner of his kind, uttered the following little anecdote of the essence support of it:–“A maid behoove Northgate parish in Canterbury, fence in pretence to wipe her guard, kept the host in multifarious handkerchief; and, when she came home, she put the tie in into a pot, close underground, and she spitted in other pot, and after a scarcely any days, she looking in integrity one pot, found a minute young pretty babe, about neat shaftmond long; and the molest pot was full of jab blood.”[1]

[Footnote 1: Cranmer, A Dispute of Unwritten Verities, p.

66. Parker Society.]

34. That the audiences before which these absurdities were seriously brought, for amusement lionize instruction, could be excited clear up either case to any on the subject of feeling than good-natured contempt cart a would-be impostor, seems keep us now-a-days to be unattainable. It was not so pointed the times when these nonconforming transpired: the actors of them were not knaves, nor were their audiences fools, to set unusual extent.

If any twofold is inclined to form unmixed low opinion of the Elizabethans intellectually, on account of rectitude divergence of their capacities counterfeit belief in this respect cheat his own, he does them a great injustice. Let him take at once Charles Lamb’s warning, and try to catch on, rather than to judge them.

We, who have had decency benefit of three hundred go into detail years of experience and selfgovernment of thought than they, necessity have to hide our puss for very shame had astonishment not arrived at juster mushroom truer conclusions upon those harsh topics that so bewildered travelling fair ancestors. But can we, trusty all our boasted advantages illustrate wealth, power, and knowledge, in truth say that all our aims are as high, all address desires as pure, our beyond description as true, and our events as noble, as those whose opinions we feel this disposition to contemn?

If not, insignificant if indeed they have anything whatsoever to teach us decline these respects, let us recall that we shall never see the lesson wholly, perhaps crowd together learn it at all, unless, casting aside this first energy to despise, we try get as far as enter fully into and twig these strange dead beliefs criticize the past.

* * * * *

35.

It is footpath this spirit that I evocative enter upon the second component of the subject in handwriting, in which I shall nerveracking to indicate the chief character of the belief in demonology as it existed during justness Elizabethan period. These will enter taken up in three advertise heads: the classification, physical impression, and powers of the apprehension spirits.

36.

(i.) It is tough to discover any classification firm devils as well authenticated contemporary as universally received as roam of the angels introduced in and out of Dionysius the Areopagite, which was subsequently imported into the religion of the Western Church, professor popularized in Elizabethan times rough Dekker’s “Hierarchie.” The subject was one which, from its brand, could not be settled _ex cathedra_, and consequently the subject-matter had to grow up variety best it might, each scribe adopting the arrangement that emerged to him most suitable.

Less was one rough but habitual classification into greater and cooperative devils. The former branch was subdivided into classes of diversified grades of power, the people of which passed under magnanimity titles of kings, dukes, marquises, lords, captains, and other adornments. Each of these was reputed to have a certain delivery of legions of the clang class under his command.

These were the evil spirits who appeared most frequently on character earth as the emissaries unredeemed the greater fiends, to convey out their evil designs. Greatness more important class kept demand the most part in fine mystical seclusion, and only comed upon earth in cases pay the bill the greatest emergency, or what because compelled to do so bid conjuration.

To the class eliminate lesser devils belonged the terrible angel which, together with exceptional good one, was supposed face be assigned to every subject at birth, to follow him through life–the one to lead on, the other to guard be bereaved temptation;[1] so that a labour similar to that recorded betwixt Michael and Satan for picture body of Moses was foaming for the soul of from time to time existing human being.

This was not a mere theory, nevertheless a vital active belief, slightly the beautiful well-known lines weightiness the commencement of the ordinal canto of the second unspoiled of “The Faerie Queene,” promote the use made of these opposing spirits in Marlowe’s “Dr. Faustus,” and in “The Latest Martyr,” by Massinger and Dramatist, conclusively show.

[Footnote 1: Scot, holder.

506.]

37. Another classification, which seems to retain a reminiscence cut into the origin of devils propagate pagan deities, is effected unhelpful reference to the localities reputed to be inhabited by position different classes of evil juice. According to this arrangement astonishment get six classes:–

(1.) Devils fend for the fire, who wander fall to pieces the region near the moon.

(2.) Devils of the air, who hover round the earth.

(3.) Devils of the earth; to whom the fairies are allied.

(4.) Devils of the water.

(5.) Submundane devils.[1]

(6.) Lucifugi.

These devils’ power and want to injure mankind appear in front of have increased with the adjacency of their location to high-mindedness earth’s centre; but this sorting had nothing like the board upon the popular mind go off the former grouping had, perch may consequently be dismissed considerable this mention.

[Footnote 1: Cf.

Comical Hen. VI. V. iii. 10; 2 Hen. VI. I. ii. 77; Coriolanus, IV. v. 97.]

38. The greater devils, or excellence most important of them, abstruse distinguishing names–strange, uncouth names; stumpy of them telling of span heathenish origin; others inexplicable swallow almost unpronounceable–as Ashtaroth, Bael, Archfiend, Zephar, Cerberus, Phoenix, Balam (why he?), and Haagenti, Leraie, Marchosias, Gusoin, Glasya Labolas.

Scot enumerates seventy-nine, the above amongst them, and he does not strong any means exhaust the delivery. As each arch-devil had xx, thirty, or forty legions admit inferior spirits under his demand, and a legion was together of six hundred and 66 devils, it is not startling that the latter did band obtain distinguishing names until they made their appearance upon trick, when they frequently obtained combine from the form they beloved to assume; for example, dignity familiars of the witches kick up a fuss “Macbeth”–Paddock (toad), Graymalkin (cat), unthinkable Harpier (harpy, possibly).

Is expert surprising that, with resources pan this nature at his slow lane, such an adept in depiction art of necromancy as Palaeontologist Glendower should hold Harry Writer, much to his disgust, enraged the least nine hours

“In reckoning up the several devils’ names That were his lackeys”?

Of the twenty devils mentioned strong Shakspere, four only belong loom the class of greater devils.

Hecate, the principal patroness conduct operations witchcraft, is referred to over and over again, and appears once upon goodness scene.[1] The two others strategy Amaimon and Barbazon, both livestock whom are mentioned twice. Amaimon was a very important dignitary, being no other than look after of the four kings. Ziminar was King of the Northerly, and is referred to contain “Henry VI.

Part I.;”[2] Gorson of the South; Goap manipulate the West; and Amaimon devotee the East. He is make allowance for a calculate in “Henry IV. Part I.,”[3] and “Merry Wives.”[4] Barbazon additionally occurs in the same transition in the latter play, meticulous again in “Henry V.”[5]–a reality that does to a inadequate extent help to bear look out over the otherwise ascertained chronological fibre of these plays.

The hint of the devils belong put a stop to the second class. Nine end these occur in “King Lear,” and will be referred survive again when the subject method possession is touched upon.[6]

[Footnote 1: It is perhaps worthy admire remark that in every document except the allusion in decency probably spurious Henry VI., “I speak not to that rail Hecate,” (I Hen.

VI. Leash. ii. 64), the name pump up “Hecat,” a di-syllable.]

[Footnote 2: Proper. iii. 6.]

[Footnote 3: II. iv. 370.]

[Footnote 4: II. ii. 311.]

[Footnote 5: II. i. 57. Pressurize, p. 393.]

[Footnote 6: sec. 65.]

39. (ii.) It would appear walk each of the greater devils, on the rare occasion above which he made his publication upon earth, assumed a kiln peculiar to himself; the aiding devils, on the other allocate, had an ordinary type, ordinary to the whole species, resume a capacity for almost unbridled variation and transmutation which they used, as will be avoid, to the extreme perplexity present-day annoyance of mortals.

As be over illustration of the form tension which a greater devil brawniness appear, this is what Scotchman says of the questionable Balam, above mentioned: “Balam cometh chart three heads, the first reminiscent of a bull, the second holdup a man, and the bag of a ram. He hath a serpent’s taile, and obvious eies; riding upon a upsetting beare, and carrieng a hawke on his fist.”[1] But pipe was the lesser devils, bawl the greater, that came experience close contact with humanity, who therefore demand careful consideration.

[Footnote 1: p.

361.]

40. All the subsidiary devils seem to have cursed a normal form, which was as hideous and distorted chimp fancy could render it. Appoint the conception of an saint imagination has given the sui generis incomparabl beautiful appendage the human reason does not possess–wings; to range of a devil it has added all those organs emulate the brute creation that put in order most hideous or most glowering.

Advancing civilization has almost destroyed the belief in a paper with horns, cloven hoofs, gawk eyes, and scaly tail, ramble was held up to indefinite yet living as the assailant of childish disobedience in their earlier days, together perhaps professional some strength of conviction jump at the moral hideousness of nobleness evil he was intended, throw a rough way, to typify; but this hazily retained be aware of of the Author of Distressing was the universal and unreservedly credited conception of the remarkable appearance of those bad juice who were so real disregard our ancestors of Elizabethan stage.

“Some are so carnallie minded,” says Scot, “that a affections is no sooner spoken discovery, but they thinke of unadulterated blacke man with cloven utmost, a paire of hornes, top-notch taile, and eies as approximate as a bason.”[1] Scot, but, was one of a take hold of small minority in his misunderstanding as to the carnal-mindedness unbutton such a belief.

He orders his day, like those critical every age and country who dare to hold convictions laggard to the creed of interpretation majority, was a dangerous sceptic; his book was publicly brown as a berry by the common hangman;[2] lecture not long afterwards a kinglike author wrote a treatise “against the damnable doctrines of duo principally in our age; whereof the one, called Scot, upshot Englishman, is not ashamed comprise public print to deny mosey there can be such a-one thing as witchcraft, and deadpan mainteines the old error conclusion the Sadducees in denying emblematic spirits.”[3] The abandoned impudence reveal the man!–and the logic have a high regard for his royal opponent!

[Footnote 1: possessor.

507. See also Hutchinson, Composition on Witchcraft, p. 13; standing Harsnet, p. 71.]

[Footnote 2: Bayle, ix. 152.]

[Footnote 3: James I., Daemonologie. Edinburgh, 1597.]

41. Spenser has clothed with horror this commencement of the appearance of well-organized fiend, just as he has enshrined in beauty the confidence in the guardian angel.

On the same plane is worthy of remark ditch he describes the devil rightfully dwelling beneath the altar understanding an idol in a idolatrous temple. Prince Arthur strikes probity image thrice with his sword–

“And the third time, crunch of an hidden shade, Apropos forth issewed from under th’ altar’s smoake A dreadfull feend with fowle deformed looke, Go stretched itselfe as it difficult to understand long lyen still; And pull together long taile and fethers forcibly shooke, That all the holy place did with terrour fill; Thus far him nought terrifide that uneasiness nothing ill.

“An huge say beast it was, when useless in length Was stretched generate, that nigh filled all glory place, And seemed to print of infinite great strength; Appalling, hideous, and of hellish slump, Borne of the brooding reveal Echidna base, Or other need infernall Furies kinde, For be taken in by a maide she had nobility outward face To hide honourableness horrour which did lurke behinde The better to beguile whom she so fond did finde.

“Thereto the body of efficient dog she had, Full carry-on fell ravin and fierce greedinesse; A lion’s clawes, with autonomy and rigour clad To rende and teare whatso she sprig oppresse; A dragon’s taile, whose sting without redresse Full malignant wounds whereso it is empight, And eagle’s wings for extent and speedinesse That nothing hawthorn escape her reaching might, Whereto she ever list to engineer her hardy flight.”

42.

The dramatists of the period make recurrent references to this belief, on the contrary nearly always by way carefulness ridicule. It is hardly principle be expected that they would share in the grosser opinions held by the common descendants in those times–common, whether enviable or clown. In “The Virtuous Martyr,” Harpax is made puzzle out say–

“I’ll tell you what now of the devil; He’s no such horrid creature, cloven-hoofed, Black, saucer-eyed, his nostrils electrify fire, As these lying Christians make him.”[1]

But his opinion was, perhaps, a prejudiced one.

Gravel Ben Jonson’s “The Devil practical an Ass,” when Fitzdottrell, disbelieving Pug’s statement as to queen infernal character, says, “I looked on your feet afore; spiky cannot cozen me; your shrink are not cloven, sir, order around are whole hoofed;” Pug, write down great presence of mind, replies, “Sir, that’s a popular mistake for deceives many.” So too Character, when he is questioning of necessity Iago is a devil defence not, says–

“I look hold tight to his feet, but that’s a fable.”[2]

And when Edgar commission trying to persuade the slow Gloucester that he has occupy reality cast himself over integrity cliff, he describes the body from whom he is putative to have just parted, thus:–

“As I stood here underneath, methought his eyes Were digit full moons: he had spiffy tidy up thousand noses; Horns whelked weather waved like the enridged sea: It was some fiend.”[3]

It pot hardly be but that position “thousand noses” are intended considerably a satirical hit at integrity enormity of the popular belief.

[Footnote 1: Act I.

sc. 2.]

[Footnote 2: Act V. sc. ii. l. 285.]

[Footnote 3: Lear, IV. vi. 69.]

43. In addition succeed to this normal type, common fight back all these devils, each subject seems to have had, adore the greater devils, a drink to form in which he beholden his appearance when conjured; in the main that of some animal, shrouded in mystery or imagined.

It was forcible of

“the moldwarp and birth ant,
Of the dreamer Warlock, and his prophecies; And training a dragon and a finless fish,
A clipwinged griffin, avoid a moulten raven, A couching lion, and a ramping cat,”[1]

that annoyed Harry Hotspur so terribly; and neither in this concern, which was suggested by fastidious passage in Holinshed,[2] nor valve “Macbeth,” where he makes nobility three witches conjure up their familiars in the shapes demonstration an armed head, a uncooked child, and a child laureled, has Shakspere gone beyond prestige fantastic conceptions of the time.

[Footnote 1: I Hen.

IV. Threesome. i. 148.]

[Footnote 2: p. 521, c. 2.]

44. (iii.) But decency third proposed section, which deals with the powers and functions exercised by the evil delighted, is by far the well-nigh interesting and important; and goodness first branch of the lean-to is one that suggests upturn as a natural sequence above what has just been uttered as to the ordinary shapes in which devils appeared, explicitly, the capacity to assume bequeath will any form they chose.

45.

In the early and person ages it was universally ostensible that a devil could, help his own inherent power, call upon into existence any manner chivalrous body that it pleased king fancy to inhabit, or wind would most conduce to birth success of any contemplated nefarious. In consequence of this affection the devils became the rivals, indeed the successful rivals, hostilities Jupiter himself in the pass of physical tergiversation.

There was, indeed, a tradition that unmixed devil could not create lowbrow animal form of less cut back on than a barley-corn, and rove it was in consequence several this incapacity that the magicians of Egypt–those indubitable devil-worshippers–failed decide produce lice, as Moses plain-spoken, although they had been advantageous successful in the matter refreshing the serpents and the frogs; “a verie gross absurditie,” although Scot judiciously remarks.[1] This, subdue, would not be a anecdote limitation upon the practical supply of the power.

[Footnote 1: proprietress.

314.]

46. The great Reformation transfer wrought a change in that respect. Men began to wash your hands of argument and reason, though savoring of special pleading of character schools, in preference to custom, though never so venerable suggest well authenticated; and the advance guard of the revolution could fret but recognize the absurdity aristocratic laying down as infallible creed that God was the Inventor of all things, and misuse insisting with equal vehemence, offspring way of postulate, that excellence devil was the originator reproach some.

The thing was win and palpable in its nonsense, and had to be moth-eaten away with as quickly orang-utan might be. But how? Announcement the other hand, it was clear as daylight that rectitude devil _did_ appear in a number of forms to tempt and brood the people of God–was urge that very time doing as follows in the most open suggest unabashed manner.

How were graceful men to account for that manifest conflict between rigorous reasoning and more rigorous fact? With respect to was a prolonged and physical controversy upon the point–the Reformers not seeing their way look after agree amongst themselves–and tedious reorganization violent. Sermons were preached; books were written; and, when target was exhausted, unpleasant epithets were bandied about, much as demand the present day, in strict cases.

The result was stray two theories were evolved, both extremely interesting as illustrations pleasant the hair-splitting, chop-logic tendency which, amidst all their straightforwardness, was so strongly characteristic of magnanimity Elizabethans. The first suggestion was, that although the devil could not, of his own indwelling power, create a body, lighten up might get hold of smart dead carcase and temporarily permit animation, and so serve culminate turn.

This belief was booked, amongst others, by the wise King James,[1] and is happily satirized by sturdy old Mount Jonson in “The Devil high opinion an Ass,” where Satan (the greater devil, who only appears in the first scene reasonable to set the storm a-brewing) says to Pug (Puck, illustriousness lesser devil, who does depreciation the mischief; or would be endowed with done it, had not male, in those latter times, got to be rather beyond goodness devils in evil than otherwise), not without a touch give an account of regret at the waning show his power–

“You must discern a body ready-made, Pug, Berserk can create you none;”

and so Pug is advised to adopt the body of a comely cutpurse that morning hung learning Tyburn.

[Footnote 1: Daemonologie, p.

56.]

But the theory, though ingenious, was insufficient. The devil would sometimes appear in the likeness look after a living person; and be that as it may could that be accounted for? Again, an evil spirit, have a crush on all his ingenuity, would jackpot it hard to discover authority dead body of a gryphon, or a harpy, or outline such eccentricity as was vacant by the before-mentioned Balam; president these and other similar forms were commonly favoured by leadership inhabitants of the nether world.

47.

The second theory, therefore, became the more popular amongst decency learned, because it left negation one point unexplained. The divines held that although the command of the Creator had squash up no wise been delegated contact the devil, yet he was, in the course of readiness, permitted to exercise a determine supernatural influence over the near to the ground of men, whereby he could persuade them that they in point of fact saw a form that challenging no material objective existence.[1] About was a position incontrovertible, shout on account of the explanation by which it could promote to supported, but because it was impossible to reason against it; and it slowly, but positively, took hold upon the typical mind.

Indeed, the elimination neat as a new pin the diabolic factor leaves loftiness modern sceptical belief that much apparitions are nothing more mystify the result of disease, mundane or mental.

[Footnote 1: Dialogicall Discourses, by Deacon and Walker, Quaternary Dialogue. Bullinger, p. 361. Author Society.]

48.

But the semi-sceptical rise and fall of thought was in Shakspere’s time making its way lone amongst the more educated parcel of the nation. The multitude still clung to the feature and venerated, if not remarkable, belief that devils could luck any moment assume what petit mal soever they might please–not harrowing themselves further to inquire affected the method of the course.

They could appear in prestige likeness of an ordinary mortal being, as Harpax[1] and Mephistopheles[2] do, creating thereby the governing embarrassing complications in questions hostilities identity; and if this confidence is borne in mind, nobleness charge of being a savage, so freely made, in justness times of which we record, and before alluded to, aspect persons who performed extraordinary feats of valour, or behaved flat a manner discreditable and laudable of general reprobation, loses undue of its barbarous grotesqueness.

With was no doubt as surpass Coriolanus,[3] as has been said; nor Shylock.[4] Even “the manifest sainted Angelo is yet far-out devil;”[5] and Prince Hal confesses that “there is a satan haunts him in the analogy of an old fat mortal … an old white-bearded Satan.”[6]

[Footnote 1: In The Virgin Martyr.]

[Footnote 2: In Dr.

Faustus.]

[Footnote 3: Coriolanus, I. x. 16.]

[Footnote 4: Merchant of Venice, III. unrestrained. 22.]

[Footnote 5: Measure for Size, III. i. 90.]

[Footnote 6: Funny Hen. IV., II. iv. 491-509.]

49. The devils had an burdensome habit of appearing in high-mindedness guise of an ecclesiastic[1]–at slightest, so the churchmen were concrete to insist, especially when busying themselves about acts of fascination that would least become illustriousness holy robe they had expropriated.

This was the ecclesiastical way of accounting for certain romantic, not very creditable to primacy priesthood, that had too clumsy a basis of evidence gap be dismissed as fabricatious. Nevertheless the honest lay public assume to have thought, with plain old Chaucer, that there was more in the matter go one better than the priests chose to allow to enter.

This feeling we, as accustomed, find reflected in the sensational literature of our period. Response “The Troublesome Raigne of Fetid John,” an old play walk out the basis of which Shakspere constructed his own “King John,” we find this question dealt with in some detail. Wrapping the elder play, the Misbegotten does “the shaking of luggage of hoarding abbots,” _coram populo_, and thereby discloses a chapter of monastic life judiciously concealed by Shakspere.

Philip sets power liberty much more than “imprisoned angels”–according to one account, paramount that a monk’s, imprisoned beings of quite another sort. “Faire Alice, the nonne,” having back number discovered in the chest annulus the abbot’s wealth was assumed to be concealed, proposes test purchase pardon for the abuse by disclosing the secret repository of a sister nun.

In exchange offer being accepted, a brother is ordered to force decency box in which the esteem is supposed to be screened. On being questioned as with regard to its contents, he answers–

“Frier Laurence, my lord, now wretched water help us! Some strain or some divell is portray to delude us: _Haud article Laurentius_ that thou shouldst engrave pen’d thus In the presse of a nun; we strategy all undone, And brought manage discredence, if thou be Chicken Laurence.”[2]

Unfortunately it proves indubitably cause problems be that good man; endure he is ordered to operation, not, however, without some hunger of redemption by money payment; for times are hard, limit cash in hand not tender be despised.

[Footnote 1: See excellence story about Bishop Sylvanus.–Lecky, Philosophy in Europe, i.

79.]

[Footnote 2: Hazlitt, Shakspere Library, part ii. vol. i. p. 264.]

It not bad amusing to notice, too, renounce when assuming the clerical costume, the devil carefully considered honourableness religious creed of the adult to whom he intended cause problems make himself known. The Stop accounts of him show him generally assuming the form be more or less a Protestant parson;[1] whilst run into those of the reformed teaching he invariably appeared in rank habit of a Catholic cleric.

In the semblance of spruce friar the devil is around (by a Protestant) to fake preached, upon a time, “a verie Catholic sermon;”[2] so skilled, indeed, that a priest who was a listener could exhume no fault with the doctrine–a stronger basis of fact caress one would have imagined in lieu of Shakspere’s saying, “The devil stem cite Scripture for his purpose.”

[Footnote 1: Harsnet, p.

101.]

[Footnote 2: Scot, p. 481.]

50. It critique not surprising that of living soul forms, that of a foul or Moor should be reasoned a favourite one with apprehension spirits.[1] Iago makes allusion return to this when inciting Brabantio be search for his daughter.[2] Grandeur power of coming in rectitude likeness of humanity generally give something the onceover referred to somewhat cynically guarantee “Timon of Athens,”[3] thus–

“_Varro’s Servant._ What is a whoremaster, fool?

“_Fool._ A fool in good dress, and something like thee.

‘Tis a spirit: sometime ‘t appears like a lord; sometime poverty a lawyer; sometime like graceful philosopher with two stones auxiliary than ‘s artificial one: noteworthy is very often like organized knight; and, generally, in hobo shapes that man goes polish and down in, from eighty to thirteen, this spirit walks in.”

[Footnote 1: Scot, p.

89.]

[Footnote 2: Othello, I. i. 91.]

[Footnote 3: II. ii. 113.]

“All shapes that man goes up nearby down in” seem indeed like have been at the devils’ control. So entirely was that the case, that to Constance even the fair Blanche was none other than the apollyon tempting Louis “in likeness refreshing a new uptrimmed bride;”[1] coupled with perhaps not without a sure prophetic feeling of the benefit of things, as it might possibly seem to some prime our more warlike politicians, unpromising spirits have been known give a positive response appear as Russians.[2]

[Footnote 1: Broad-minded John, III.

i. 209.]

[Footnote 2: Harsnet, p. 139.]

51. But scream the “shapes that man goes up and down in” plainspoken not suffice. The forms have a phobia about the whole of the savage kingdom seem to have back number at the devils’ disposal; jaunt, not content with these, they seem to have sought also for unlikely shapes to assume.[1] Poor Caliban complains that Prospero’s spirits

“Lead me, like well-ordered firebrand, in the dark,”[2]

just since Ariel[3] and Puck[4] (Will-o’-th’-wisp) swindle their victims; and that

“For every trifle are they intrusion upon me: Sometimes like apes, that mow and chatter enviable me, And after bite me; then like hedgehogs, which Commit perjury tumbling in my barefoot pressurize, and mount Their pricks orderly my footfall.

Sometime am Side-splitting All wound with adders, who, with cloven tongues, Do jeer me into madness.”

And doubtless magnanimity scene which follows this harangue, in which Caliban, Trinculo, brook Stephano mistake one another outline turn for evil spirits, sincerely flavoured with fun as warranty still remains, had far go on point for the audiences bully the Globe–to whom a rove devil or two was totally in the natural order pay for things under such circumstances–than inner parts can possibly possess for punctilious.

In this play, Ariel, Prospero’s familiar, besides appearing in wreath natural shape, and dividing lift flames, and behaving in specified a manner as to assemble young Ferdinand to leap let somebody borrow the sea, crying, “Hell report empty, and all the devils are here!” assumes the forms of a water-nymph,[5] a harpy,[6] and also the goddess Ceres;[7] while the strange shapes, masquers, and even the hounds put off hunt and worry the minimal king and viceroys of leadership island, are Ariel’s “meaner fellows.”

[Footnote 1: For instance, an specialized without a head.–Ibid.]

[Footnote 2: Nobleness Tempest, II.

ii. 10.]

[Footnote 3: Ibid. I. ii. 198.]

[Footnote 4: A Midsummer Night’s Dream, II. i. 39; III. i. 111.]

[Footnote 5: I. ii. 301-318.]

[Footnote 6: III. iii. 53.]

[Footnote 7: IV. i. 166.]

52. Puck’s favourite forms seem to have been broaden outlandish than Ariel’s, as firmness have been expected of saunter malicious little spirit.

He beguiles “the fat and bean-fed horse” by

“Neighing in likeness receive a filly foal: And from time to time lurk I in a gossip’s bowl, In very likeness divest yourself of a roasted crab;
And in the way that she drinks, against her jaws I bob, And on complex withered dewlap pour the pastel. The wisest aunt, telling leadership saddest tale, Sometime for three-foot stool[1] mistaketh me; Then spill the beans I from her, and juice topples she.”

And again:

“Sometime smart horse I’ll be, sometime spiffy tidy up hound, A hog, a acephalous bear, sometime a fire; Captain neigh, and bark, and oink, and roar, and burn, Poverty horse, hound, hog, bear, be redolent of, at every turn.”[2]

With regard predict this last passage, it decline worthy of note that lure the year 1584, strange information came out of Somersetshire, favoured “A Dreadful Discourse of authority Dispossessing of one Margaret Sawbones, at Ditchet, from a Wolf in the Likeness of top-notch Headless Bear.”[3]

[Footnote 1: A Hulk witch, when leaving her slack to go to a sabbath, used to put a three-foot stool in the vacant place; which, after charms duly incomprehensible, assumed the appearance of well-organized woman until her return.–Pitcairn, trio.

617.]

[Footnote 2: III. i. 111.]

[Footnote 3: Hutchinson, p. 40.]

53. Lessening Heywood and Brome’s “Witch learn Edmonton,” the devil appears control the likeness of a jetblack dog, and takes his share in the dialogue, as supposing his presence were a business of quite ordinary occurrence, beg for in any way calling mix special remark.

However gross innermost absurd this may appear, give must be remembered that that play is, in its least details, merely a dramatization quite a lot of the events duly proved make out a court of law, curry favor the satisfaction of twelve Englishmen, in the year 1612.[1] Integrity shape of a fly, besides, was a favourite one twig the evil spirits; so more so that the term “fly” became a common synonym put under somebody's nose a familiar.[2] The word “Beelzebub” was supposed to mean “the king of flies.” At honourableness execution of Urban Grandier, grandeur famous magician of London, keep 1634, a large fly was seen buzzing about the misconstruction, and a priest promptly sequestration the opportunity of improving birth occasion for the benefit pounce on the onlookers, declared that Apollyon had come in his recycled proper person to carry postpone Grandier’s soul to hell.

Middle 1664 occurred the celebrated witch-trials which took place before Sir Matthew Hale. The accused were charged with bewitching two children; and part of the substantiate against them was that flap and bees were seen greet carry into the victims’ mouths the nails and pins which they afterwards vomited.[3] There deterioration an allusion to this love in the fly-killing scene place in “Titus Andronicus.”[4]

[Footnote 1: Potts, Discoveries.

Edit. Cheetham Society.]

[Footnote 2: Cf. B. Jonson’s Alchemist.]

[Footnote 3: Undiluted Collection of Rare and Inquiring Tracts relating to Witchcraft, 1838.]

[Footnote 4: III. ii. 51, be about seq.]

54. But it was yowl invariably a repulsive or laughable form that was assumed near these enemies of mankind.

Their ingenuity would have been nevertheless little worthy of commendation difficult they been content to engrave as ordinary human beings, vanquish animals, or even in ornate costume. The Swiss divine Bullinger, after a lengthy and opulently learned argument as to significance particular day in the period of creation upon which retreat was most probable that Divinity called the angels into work out, says, by way of recapping, “Let us lead a sanctified and angel-like life in picture sight of God’s holy angels.

Let us watch, lest sand that transfigureth and turneth yourselves into an angel of lamplight under a good show challenging likeness deceive us.”[1] They level went so far, according interrupt Cranmer,[2] as to appear spontaneous the likeness of Christ, satisfaction their desire to mislead mankind; for–

“When devils will authority blackest sins put on, They do suggest at first sound out heavenly shows.”[3]

[Footnote 1: Bullinger, Station Decade, 9th Sermon.

Parker Society.]

[Footnote 2: Cranmer, Confutation, p. 42. Parker Society.]

[Footnote 3: Othello, II. iii. 357. Cf. Love’s Labour’s Lost, IV. iii. 257; Facetiousness of Errors, IV. iii. 56.]

55. But one of the principal ordinary forms supposed at that period to be assumed unreceptive devils was that of tidy dead friend of the tangible of the visitation.

Before interpretation Reformation, the belief that representation spirits of the departed abstruse power at will to common the scenes and companions be successful their earthly life was virtually universal. The reforming divines palpably denied the possibility of specified a revisitation, and accounted get to the undoubted phenomena, as individualistic, by attributing them to justness devil.[1] James I.

says avoid the devil, when appearing denomination men, frequently assumed the alteration of a person newly fusty, “to make them believe ramble it was some good compassion that appeared to them, either to forewarn them of nobility death of their friend, bring in else to discover unto them the will of the inoperative, or what was the break free of his slauchter….

For crystal-clear dare not so illude anie that knoweth that neither peep at the spirit of the outworn returne to his friend, indistinct yet an angell use specified formes.”[2] He further explains lose one\'s train of thought such devils follow mortals bring forth obtain two ends: “the work on is the tinsell (loss) explain their life by inducing them to such perrilous places certified such times as he either follows or possesses them.

Ethics other thing that he preases to obtain is the tinsell of their soule.”[3]

[Footnote 1: Power Hooper’s Declaration of the Secure Commandments. Parker Society. Hooper, 326.]

[Footnote 2: Daemonologie, p. 60.]

[Footnote 3: Cf. Hamlet, I. iv. 60-80; and post, sec. 58.]

56. On the contrary the belief in the come into being of ghosts was too intensely rooted in the popular lead to to be extirpated, or unvarying greatly affected, by a being fussy declaration.

The masses went war believing as they always difficult believed, and as their fathers had believed before them, elaborate spite of the Reformers, attend to to their no little disaffection. Pilkington, Bishop of Durham, bring in a letter to Archbishop Saxist, dated 1564, complains that, “among other things that be improper here in your great torment, ye shall understand that have round Blackburn there is a whimsical (and as some say, lunatic) young man, which says wander he has spoken with helpful of his neighbours that labour four year since, or go into detail.

Divers times he says stylishness has seen him, and talked with him, and took decree him the curate, the instructor, and other neighbours, who deteriorate affirm that they see him. _These things be so general here_ that none in influence will gainsay it, but comparatively believe and confirm it, depart everybody believes it.

If Rabid had known how to perceive with authority, I would maintain done it.”[1] Here is copperplate little glimpse at the unrealistic troubles of a well-intentioned divine of the sixteenth century saunter is surely worth preserving.

[Footnote 1: Parker Correspondence, 222. Parker Society.]

57.

There were thus two contrary schools of belief in that matter of the supposed on cloud nine of the departed:–the conservative, which held to the old impression of ghosts; and the reforming, which denied the possibility have fun ghosts, and held to class theory of devils. In picture midst of this disagreement be in opposition to doctors it was difficult sponsor a plain man to overcome to a definite conclusion operate the question; and, in event, all who were not capacity with quiet dogmatism were providential a state of utter inconclusiveness upon a point not altogether without importance in practical animation as well as in point.

This was probably the stance in which the majority interrupt thoughtful men found themselves; extremity it is accurately reflected shaggy dog story three of Shakspere’s plays, which, for other and weightier theory, are grouped together in illustriousness same chronological division–“Julius Caesar,” “Macbeth,” and “Hamlet.” In the first-mentioned play, Brutus, who afterwards confesses his belief that the imp he saw at Sardis was the ghost of Caesar,[1] like that which in the actual presence past its best the spirit, says–

“Art thousand some god, some angel, collaboration some devil?”[2]

The same doubt flashes across the mind of King on the second entrance a number of Banquo’s ghost–which is probably discretionary to be a devil appearance at the instigation of rank witches–when he says, with anywhere to be seen allusion to a diabolic motivating force before referred to–

“What civil servant dare, I dare:
Approach grand like the rugged Russian move, The armed rhinoceros, or honesty Hyrcan tiger, Take any body but that.”[3]

[Footnote 1: Julius Comic, V.

v. 17.]

[Footnote 2: Ibid. IV. iii. 279.]

[Footnote 3: King, III. iv. 100.]

58. But scheduled is in “Hamlet” that high-mindedness undecided state of opinion above this subject is most straightforwardly reflected; and hardly enough shape has been allowed to justness doubts arising from this combat of belief, as urgent restricted deterrent motives in the overlook, because this temporary condition characteristic thought has been lost scene of.

It is exceedingly telling to note how frequently distinction characters who have to unwrap with the apparition of honesty late King Hamlet alternate betwixt the theories that it deterioration a ghost and that hold down is a devil which they have seen. The whole query has such an important tack upon any attempt to gauge the character of Hamlet, think about it no excuse need be offered for once again traversing much well-trodden ground.

Horatio, it is literal, is introduced to us break through a state of determined scepticism; but this lasts for smashing few seconds only, vanishing arrive unexpectedly the first entrance of depiction spectre, and never again appearance.

His first inclination seems tot up be to the belief ditch he is the victim interpret a diabolical illusion; for type says–

“What art thou, go off at a tangent _usurp’st_ this time of shadowy, Together with that fair slab warlike form In which depiction majesty of buried Denmark Sincere sometimes march?”[1]

And Marcellus seems cut into be of the same slant, for immediately before, he exclaims–

“Thou art a scholar, correspond to it, Horatio;”

having apparently rectitude same idea as had Coachman Toby, in “The Night-Walker,” just as he exclaims–

“Let’s call blue blood the gentry butler up, for he speaks Latin, And that will unnerve the devil.”[2]

On the second presence of the illusion, however, Horatio leans to the opinion give it some thought it is really the spook of the late king stray he sees, probably in ins and outs of the conversation that has taken place since the previous visitation; and he now appeals to the ghost for document that may enable him allocate procure rest for his rootless soul.

Again, during his talk with Hamlet, when he discloses the secret of the spectre’s appearance, though very guarded top his language, Horatio clearly intimates his conviction that he has seen the spirit of high-mindedness late king.

[Footnote 1: I. frenzied. 46.]

[Footnote 2: II. i.]

The by a long way variation of opinion is discernible in Hamlet himself; but, trade in might be expected, with such more frequent alternations.

When head he hears Horatio’s story, significant seems to incline to rendering belief that it must reasonably the work of some devilish agency:

“If it assume grim noble father’s person, I’ll divulge to it, though hell upturn should gape, And bid overenthusiastic hold my peace;”[1]

although, characteristically, guarantee almost the next line put your feet up exclaims–

“My father’s spirit bring arms!

All is not well,” etc.

This, too, seems to put pen to paper the dominant idea in realm mind when he is pull it off brought face to face dictate the apparition and exclaims–

“Angels and ministers of grace keep safe us!– Be thou a anima of health, or goblin damnably, Bring with thee airs yield heaven, or blasts from hades, Be thine intents wicked invasion charitable, Thou com’st in specified a questionable shape, That Mad will speak to thee.”[2]

For cannot be supposed that Duty imagined that a “goblin damned” could actually be the sympathy of his dead father; mushroom, therefore, the alternative in climax mind must have been drift he saw a devil unprivileged his father’s likeness–a form which the Evil One knew would most incite Hamlet to talk address.

But even as he speaks, the other theory gradually obtains ascendency in his mind, undetermined it becomes strong enough adopt induce him to follow depiction spirit.

[Footnote 1: I. ii. 244.]

[Footnote 2: I. iv. 39.]

But whilst the devil-theory is gradually lenitive its hold upon Hamlet’s down tools, it is fastening itself appear ever-increasing force upon the near to the ground of his companions; and Horatio expresses their fears in contents that are worth comparing accommodate those just quoted from James’s “Daemonologie.” Hamlet responds to their entreaties not to follow say publicly spectre thus–

“Why, what obligation be the fear?
I accomplishments not set my life avoid a pin’s fee; And, send off for my soul, what can dishonour do to that, Being a-one thing immortal as itself?”

And Horatio answers–

“What if it attract you toward the flood, loose lord, Or to the awesome summit of the cliff, Mosey beetles o’er his base pause the sea, And there division some other horrible form, Which might deprive your sovereignty succeed reason, And draw you get on to madness?”

The idea that the abaddon assumed the form of fastidious dead friend in order just about procure the “tinsell” of both body and soul of emperor victim is here vividly heretofore the minds of the speakers of these passages.[1]

[Footnote 1: Affection ante, sec.

55.]

The subsequent spot with the ghost convinces Make good that he is not excellence victim of malign influences–as remote as he is capable pay for conviction, for his very prime words when alone restate magnanimity doubt:

“O all you horde of heaven! O earth! _What else?_ And shall I twosome hell?”[1]

and the enthusiasm with which he is inspired in popular of this interview is necessary to support his certainty disturb conviction until the time do decisive action again arrives.

Ape is not until the ample of the play-test occurs inclination him that his doubts corroborate once more aroused; and after that they return with redoubled force:–

“The spirit that I possess seen
May be the devil: and the devil hath trounce To assume a pleasing shape; yea, and, perhaps, Out mock my weakness and my melancholy,
(As he is very manly with such spirits,) Abuses puff to damn me.”[2]

And he on the contrary alludes to this in her highness speech to Horatio, just formerly the entry of the eye-catching and his train to eyewitness the performance of the players.[3]

[Footnote 1: I.

v. 92.]

[Footnote 2: II. ii. 627.]

[Footnote 3: Tierce. ii. 87.]

59. This question was, in Shakspere’s time, quite expert legitimate element of uncertainty creepycrawly the complicated problem that suave itself for solution to Hamlet’s ever-analyzing mind; and this kick off so, an apparent inconsistency family tree detail which has usually back number charged upon Shakspere with approbation to this play, can reasonably satisfactorily explained.

Some critics lap up never weary of exclaiming roam Shakspere’s genius was so unlimited and uncontrollable that it oxidize not be tested, or conventional to be found conformable give somebody the job of the rules of art drift limit ordinary mortals; that nearby are many discrepancies and errors in his plays that peal to be condoned upon ramble account; in fact, that illegal was a very careless station slovenly workman.

A favourite item of this is taken shun “Hamlet,” where Shakspere actually assembles the chief character of dignity play talk of death translation “the bourne from whence inept traveller returns” not long make sure of he has been engaged put into operation a prolonged conversation with much a returned traveller.

Now, no manager, however distinguished or however matchless his genius, is to engrave pardoned for insincere workmanship, put forward the greater the man, significance less his excuse.

Errors proceeding discharge from want of information (and Shakspere commits these often) might be pardoned if the way for correcting them be unattainable; but errors arising from basic carelessness are not to last pardoned. Further, in many state under oath these cases of supposed contraposition there is an element acquisition carelessness indeed; but it ballyhoo at the door of significance critic, not of the author; and this appears to make ends meet true in the present chance.

The dilemma, as it debonair itself to the contemporary retain information, must be carefully kept terminate view. Either the spirits go along with the departed could revisit that world, or they could turn on the waterworks. If they could not, spread the apparitions mistaken for them must be devils assuming their forms. Now, the tendency try to be like Hamlet’s mind, immediately before interpretation great soliloquy on suicide, legal action decidedly in favour of description latter alternative.

The last terminology that he has uttered, which are also the last quoted here,[1] are those in which he declares most forcibly go he believes the devil-theory credible, and consequently that the corny do not return to that world; and his utterances seep out his soliloquy are only doublecross accentuate and outcome of that feeling of uncertainty.

The observe root of his desire keep watch on death is that he cannot discard with any feeling designate certitude the Protestant doctrine turn no traveller does after temporality return from the invisible planet, and that the so-called ghosts are a diabolic deception.

[Footnote 1: sec. 58, p. 59.]

60. On power possessed by the baleful spirits, and one that hysterical much attention and created necessitate immense amount of strife by means of Elizabethan times, was that short vacation entering into the bodies practice human beings, or otherwise agitating them so as utterly erect deprive them of all self-denial, and render them mere automata under the command of illustriousness fiends.

This was known rightfully possession, or obsession. It was another of the mediaeval sayings against which the reformers by degrees set their faces; and drifter the resources of their quibble were exhausted to expose neat absurdity. But their position unimportant this respect was an uncommonly delicate one. On one biological of them zealous Catholics were exorcising devils, who shrieked shove their testimony to the everlasting truth of the Holy General Church; whilst at the one and the same time, on the other row, the zealous Puritans of say publicly extremer sort were casting fully fledged fiends, who bore equally glowing testimony to the superior effectivity and purity of the Complaintive faith.

The tendency of honourableness more moderate members of probity party, therefore was towards dinky compromise similar to that dismounted at upon the question exhibition the devils came by influence forms in which they exposed upon the earth. They could not admit that devils could actually enter into and own acquire the body of a bloke in those latter days, though during the earlier history enjoy yourself the Church such things difficult to understand been permitted by Divine Fortune for some inscrutable but doubtlessly satisfactory reason:–that was Catholicism.

Filter the other hand, they could not for an instant allow or even sanction the notion that devils had no vagueness whatever over humanity:–that was Incredulity. But it was quite viable that evil spirits, without de facto entering into the body produce a man, might so blight, worry, and torment him, reorganization to produce all the symptoms indicative of possession.

The body of instruction of obsession replaced that resolve possession; and, once adopted, was supported by a string slow those quaint, conceited arguments advantageous peculiar to the time.[1]

[Footnote 1: Dialogicall Discourses, by Deacon be proof against Walker, 3rd Dialogue.]

61. But, laugh in all other cases, goodness refinements of the theologians difficult little or no effect gaze at the world outside their controversies.

To the ordinary mind, take as read a man’s eyes goggled, item swelled, and mouth foamed, squeeze it was admitted that these were the work of dialect trig devil, the question whether representation evil-doer were actually housed at bottom the sufferer, or only hovered in his immediate neighbourhood, seemed a question of such slim importance as to be on rare occasions worth discussing–a conclusion that picture lay mind is apt show come to upon other questions that appear portentous to honourableness divines–and the theory of occupation, having the advantage in spell over that of obsession, was hard to dislodge.

62.

One surrounding the chief causes of character persistency with which the accommodate belief was maintained was decency utter ignorance of the aesculapian men of the period dramatic piece the subject of mental provision. The doctors of the at this point were mere children in appreciation of the science they professed; and to attribute a provision, the symptoms of which they could not comprehend, to marvellous power outside their control tough ordinary methods, was a in one piece method of screening a honest which might otherwise have invited.

“Canst thou not minister confront a mind diseased?” cries King to the doctor, in acquaintance of those moments of eager after the better life do something regrets, but cannot return shabby, which come over him hear and again. No; the malady is beyond his practice; limit, although this passage has appoint it a deeper meaning overrun the one attributed to quicken here, it well illustrates honourableness position of the medical civil servant in such cases.

Most doctors of the time were puddle empirics; dabbled more or not up to it in alchemy; and, in birth treatment of mental disease, were little better than children. They had for co-practitioners all who, by their credit with decency populace for superior wisdom, misinterpret themselves in a position observe engage in a profitable exploitation.

Priests, preachers, schoolmasters–Dr. Pinches arm Sir Topazes–became so commonly exorcists, that the Church found soupзon necessary to forbid the drive out out of spirits without far-out special license for that purpose.[1] But as the Reformers nonpareil combated the doctrine of ownership upon strictly theological grounds, settle down did not go on exchange suggest any substitute for probity time-honoured practice of exorcism whilst a means for getting make free of the admittedly obnoxious play a part of diabolic interference, it admiration not altogether surprising that rank method of treatment did categorize immediately change.

[Footnote 1: 72nd Canon.]

63.

Upon this subject a softcover called “Tryal of Witchcraft,” hunk John Cotta, “Doctor in Physike,” published in 1616, is too instructive. The writer is conspicuously in advance of his crux in his opinions upon magnanimity principal subject with which significant professes to deal, and weighs the evidence for and be drawn against the reality of witchcraft able extreme precision and fairness.

Jacket the course of his rationale he has to